Usuari:Jolle/Sarbàdarida

The Sarbadars (from sarbadar, "head on gallows"; also known as Sarbedaran) were a mixture of religious dervishes and secular rulers that came to rule over part of western Khurasan in the midst of the disintegration of the Mongol Ilkhanate in the mid-14th century. Centered in their capital of Sabzavar, they continued their reign until Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad submitted to Timur in 1381, and were one of the few groups that managed to mostly avoid Timur's famous brutality. In modern Iranian history the term "Sarbedars" was used by the Union of Iranian Communists (Sarbedaran) during their armed uprising in January of 1982 in Amol against the Iranian regime.

El Sarbadars (de sarbadar, "cap en gallows"; també conegut com Sarbedaran) eren una mescla de dervissos religiosos i governants seculars que venien a governar part de Khurasan occidental enmig de la desintegració de l'Ilkhanate Mongol en el mig-14è segle. Centrat a la seva capital de Sabzavar, continuaven el seu regnat fins a Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad se sotmetia a Timur el 1381, i era un dels pocs grups que aconseguien evitar principalment la brutalitat famosa de Timur. En la història iraniana moderna el terme "Sarbedars" era utilitzat per la Unió De Comunistes Iranians (sarbedaran) durant la seva revolta armada el gener de 1982 en Amol contra el règim iranià.

Religió

The Sarbadar state was marked by divisions in religious belief during its existence. Its rulers were Shi'i, though often Sunnis claimed leadership among the people with the support of Ilkhanid rulers. The leadership of the Shi'is stemmed chiefly from the charisma of Shaykh Khalifa; a scholar from Mazandaran, the shaykh had arrived in Khurasan some years before the founding of the Sarbadar state and was subsequently murdered by Sunnis. His successor, Hasan Juri, established the former's practices in the Sarbadar state. The followers of these practices were known as "Sabzavaris" after the city. The Sabzavaris, however, were divided; among their number were moderate Shi'is who were often at odds with the dervishes, adherents of a mystic sect within Shi'i Islam. The capital city of Sabzavar undoubtedly had a strong Shi'i presence, but as the Sarbadars conquered the neighboring territory, they acquired cities with significant Sunni populations.

L'estat Sarbadar era marcat per divisions en la creença religiosa durant la seva existència. Els seus governants eren Shi'i, encara que sovint Sunnis reclamava lideratge entre la gent amb el suport de governants Ilkhanid. El lideratge del Shi'is provenia principalment del carisma de Shaykh Khalifa; un becari des de Mazandaran, el shaykh havia arribat a Khurasan alguns anys abans del fundar de l'estat Sarbadar i era posteriorment assassinat per Sunnis. El seu successor, Hasan Juri, establia les pràctiques del former en l'estat Sarbadar. Els seguidors d'aquestes pràctiques es coneixien com "Sabzavaris" després de la ciutat. Els Sabzavaris, tanmateix, es dividien; entre el seu número eren Shi'is moderat que eren sovint a probabilitats amb els dervissos, partidaris d'una secta mística dins de Shi'i Islam. La capital ciutat de Sabzavar indubtablement tenia una presència Shi'i forta, però mentre el Sarbadars conqueria el territori veí, adquirien ciutats amb poblacions Sunni significatives.

Govern

The Sarbadars are unique among the major contenders in post-Ilkhanid Persia in that none of their leaders ruled as legitimate sovereigns. None of them had a legitimate claim to the Ilkhanid throne, or were related to a Mongol or any other royal house, and none of them had previously held a high post within the Ilkhanate. While they on occasion recognized claimants to the Ilkhanid throne as their overlord, they did so purely as a matter of convenience, and in all other aspects they had no ties to the Ilkhanate. This fact had a strong influence regarding the nature of the Sarbadar political state.

Els Sarbadars són únics entre els adversaris essencials a postIlkhanid Pèrsia ja que cap dels seus líders no governava com sobirans legítims. Cap d'ells no tenia una reclamació legítima al tron Ilkhanid, o es referia a un mongol o qualsevol altra casa reial, i cap d'ells no havia ocupat prèviament un càrrec alt dins de l'Ilkhanate. Mentre que de tant en tant reconeixien sol·licitants al tron Ilkhanid com el seu overlord, feien tan purament com una qüestió de conveniència, i en tots els altres aspectes no tenien cap lligam a l'Ilkhanate. Aquest fet tenia una influència forta quant a la natura de l'estat polític Sarbadar.

The Sarbadars had a form of government which would, in modern times, probably be identified as an oligarchy or a republic. Unlike their neighbors, the Sarbadars had no dynastic lines; power usually went to the most ambitious. This view is not universally held, however. Some point to the fact that one of the Sarbadar rulers, Vajih al-Din 'Mas'ud, produced a son who also eventually reigned, named Lutf Allah. While seven other rulers separated the reign of Mas'ud and that of his son, those seven rulers are sometimes considered regents for Lutf Allah, until he was old enough to grab power for himself. Nevertheless, the seven are generally considered the heads of state in their own right.

El Sarbadars tenia una forma de govern que, en temps moderns, probablement seria identificat com una oligarquia o una república. A diferència dels seus veïns, el Sarbadars no tenia cap línia dinàstica; el poder normalment se n'anava al més ambiciós. Aquesta vista no es té universalment, tanmateix. Aproximadament jugar al fet que un dels governants Sarbadar, Xivarri d'al Vajih 'Mas'ud, produït un fill que també finalment regnava, anomenava Lutf Allah. Mentre que set altres governants separaven el regnat de Mas'ud i allò del seu fill, aquells set governants es consideren a vegades regents per a Lutf Allah, fins que era prou vell per agafar poder per a si mateix. No obstant això, els set es consideren generalment els caps d'estat en el seu propi correcte.

A ruler would hold power for as long as he could; the fact that several of them met violent deaths was a sign of the instability that plagued the state for most of its existence. The founder of the Sabadar state, 'Abd al-Razzaq, used the title of amir during his reign. While many of the Sarbadar leaders were secular, the dervishes also had their turns in power, and on occasion they ruled the state in condominium with each other; such partnerships, however, tended to fall apart quickly. Because the two sides held radically different views on how the Sarbadar government should be run, there were often drastic changes in policy as one side would supplant the other as the most powerful.

Un governant tindria poder per mentre ell podia; el fet que uns quants d'ells trobessin morts violentes era un senyal de la inestabilitat que turmentava l'estat per a molts de la seva existència. El fundador de l'estat Sabadar, 'al-razzaq D'abd, utilitzava el títol d'amir durant el seu regnat. Mentre que molts dels líders Sarbadar eren seculars, els dervissos també tenien les seves voltes al poder, i de tant en tant governaven l'estat en condomini l'un amb l'altre; tals associacions, tanmateix, tendien a desfer-se de pressa. Perquè els dos costats tenien vistes radicalment diferents en com s'hauria de córrer el govern Sarbadar, hi havia sovint canvis dràstics a política com un costat substituiria l'altre com el més poderós.

Història

Fundació

The Sarbadar state came into existence around early 1337. At that time, much of Khurasan was under the control of the Ilkhanid claimant Togha Temur and his amirs. One of his subjects, 'Ala' al-Din Muhammad, had jurisdiction over the city of Sabzavar. His oppressive taxation of the area caused an 'Abd al-Razzaq, a member of the feudal ruling class, to murder a government official in Bashtin, a district of the city. The official was a nephew of 'Ala' al-Din, and 'Abd al-Razzaq raised the standard of revolt. The rebels at first settled in the mountains, where they defeated militias sent against them and raided caravans and herds of cattle, and then in the summer of 1337 took possession of Sabzavar. Togha Temur was most likely campaigning in the west at this time, against the Jalayirids, making him unable to deal with the revolt. 'Abd al-Razzaq took the title of amir and had coins made in his name, but he was stabbed to death by his brother Vajih al-Din 'Mas'ud during an argument in 1338. Mas'ud, taking command of the Sarbadars, made peace with Togha Temur, promising to recognize him as sovereign and to pay taxes to him. The khan agreed, in the hope that it would put a stop to the Sarbadar raids on his supply trains.

L'estat Sarbadar entrava a existència al voltant de primer 1337. En aquell temps, molt de Khurasan era sota el control del sol·licitant Ilkhanid Togha Temur i els seus amirs. Un dels seus temes, Xivarri d'al DAlabama' Muhammad, tenia jurisdicció sobre la ciutat de Sabzavar. Els seus impostos opressius de l'àrea feien que un Abd al-Razzaq, un membre de la classe dirigent feudal, assassinés un oficial governamental a Bashtin, un districte de la ciutat. L'oficial era un nebot de Xivarri d'al dAlabama', i 'Abd al-Razzaq augmentava l'estàndard de rebel·lió. Els rebels al principi s'instal·laven a les muntanyes, on derrotaven les milícies enviaven contra ells i atacaven caravanes i ramats de bestiar, i llavors a l'estiu de 1337 prenia possessió de Sabzavar. Togha Temur estava fent més probablement campanya a l'oest a això hora, contra el Jalayirids, fent-lo incapaç de tractar amb la rebel·lió. 'Abd al-Razzaq prenia el títol d'amir i feia que es faci en el seu nom monedes, però se l'apunyalava a mort per 'el' seu Xivarri d'al Vajih germà 'Mas'ud durant un argument el 1338. Mas'ud, que prenia comanda del Sarbadars, feia pau amb Togha Temur, prometent reconèixer-lo com sobirà i pagar-li impostos. El khan acceptava, en l'esperança que posaria una aturada als atacs Sarbadar sobre els seus trens de subministrament.

In the meantime, Shaikh Kalifa's follower Hasan Juri had been preaching in towns all across Khurasan, with great success. His accomplishments attracted the suspicion of the government authorities, and in May 1336 he fled to eastern Iraq. When he returned some years later, Togha Temur's lieutenant and commander of the Ja'un-i Qurban Arghun Shah had him arrested in 1339 or 1340. He was eventually released, perhaps due to the insistence of Mas'ud, who soon after decided to take advantage of Hasan Juri's popularity. He joined Hasan's order as a novice, and had him proclaimed as joint ruler. Hasan Juri proclaimed that the Twelfth Imam would soon return. While the sharing of power began well, differences quickly emerged between the two. Mas'ud believed in accepting the nominal suzerainty of Togha Temur, while Hasan Juri was intent on establishing a Shi'i state. The two rulers each gained bases of support; the former had his family and the gentry, while the latter had the dervishes, the aristocracy, and the trade guilds. Both also had their own armed forces; Mas'ud had 12,000 armed peasants and a bodyguard of 700 Turkish slave troops, while Hasan Juri had an army composed of artisans and merchants.

Mentrestant, el seguidor de Shaikh Kalifa Hasan Juri havia estat predicant a les ciutats tot a través de Khurasan, amb el gran èxit. Els seus acompliments atreien la sospita de les autoritats governamentals, i el maig de 1336 fugia a Iraq oriental. Quan retornava alguns anys més tard, el lloctinent de Togha Temur i comandant del Ja'un-i Qurban Arghun Shah tenia ell arrestat dins 1339 o 1340. Se l'alliberava finalment, potser a causa de la insistència de Mas'ud, que aviat després decidia aprofitar la popularitat d'Hasan Juri. Unia l'ordre d'Hasan com a novici, i el feia que se'l proclami com governant conjunt. Hasan Juri proclamava que el Twelfth Imam retornaria aviat. Mentre que el repartiment de poder començava bé, les diferències de pressa emergien entre el dos. Mas'ud creia a acceptar el suzerainty nominal de Togha Temur, mentre que Hasan Juri era intenció establint un estat Shi'i. Els dos governants cada un guanyaven bases de suport; l'anterior tenia la seva família i l'aristocràcia, mentre que l'últim tenia els dervissos, l'aristocràcia, i els gremis de comerç. Els dos també tenien les seves pròpies forces armades; Mas'ud en tenia 12,000 armat camperols i un guardaespatlles de 700 tropes esclaves turques, mentre que Hasan Juri feia que compongui d'artesans i comerciants un exèrcit.

In 1340 Mas'ud moved against the Ja'un-i Qurban under Arghun Shah; the latter was forced to abandon Nishapur and retreat to Tus. The Sarbadars continued to mint coins in Togha Temur's name, in the hope that he would ignore this move as he was campaigning in the west again at this time. The khan, however, moved against them; his forces were destroyed, and while fleeing to Mazandaran several important figures such as 'Ala' al-Din (formerly in charge of Sabzavar), 'Adb-Allah, and Togha's own brother 'Ali Ke'un were killed. The Sarbadars gained control of Jajarm, Damghan and Simnan, along with Togha's capital of Gurgan. Mas'ud and Hasan Juri, however, soon came into disagreement over several issues. Mas'ud, following the defeat of Togha Temur, gained a new suzerain in the form of Hasan Kucek of the Chobanids, as well as the latter's puppet khan Sulaiman. Mas'ud considered the move necessary; with the conquest of Simnan, the Chobanids were now neighbors. Since the Chobanids were Sunnis, however, this doubtless did not go over well with Mas'ud's co-ruler.

El 1340 Mas'ud es traslladava contra el Ja'un-i Qurban sota Arghun Shah; l'últim es forçava a abandonar Nishapur i retirar-se a Dt. El Sarbadars continuat a monedes de menta en el nom de Togha Temur, en l'esperança que ignoraria aquest moviment mentre estava fent campanya a l'oest una altra vegada a això hora. El khan, tanmateix, es movia contra ells; les seves forces es destruïen, i mentre fuig a Mazandaran d'unes quantes xifres importants com Xivarri d'al dAlabama' (anteriorment al càrrec de Sabzavar), 'Allah d'Adb, i 'el' propi germà de Togha Ali Ke'un es mataven. El Sarbadars guanyava control de Jajarm, Damghan i Simnan, junt amb la capital de Togha de Gurgan. Mas'ud i Hasan Juri, tanmateix, aviat entraven a desacord sobre uns quants assumptes. Mas'ud, després de la derrota de Togha Temur, guanyava un suzerain nou en forma d'Hasan Kucek del Chobanids, així com el titella del latter khan Sulaiman. Mas'ud considerava necessari el moviment; amb la conquesta de Simnan, els Chobanids eren ara veïns. Des que els Chobanids eren Sunnis, tanmateix, aquest indubtablement no se n'anava per damunt bé amb Mas' el cogovernant d'ud.

With the defeat of the Ja'un-i Qurban and Togha Temur, the Sarbadars still had one more force to contend with in Khurasan: the Kartids of Herat. Their leader Mu'izz al-Din Husain also recognized Togha Temur's overlordship, and when the Sarbadars threw off the khan's nominal rule, they became enemies. The Sarbadars decided to destroy the Kartids with an offensive campaign. The armies of the two forces met at Zava on July 18, 1342. The battle started out well for the Sarbadars, but then Hasan Juri was taken and killed. His supporters, assuming (perhaps correctly) that his death had been the result of an assassin of Mas'ud, promptly retreated, turning the tide of the battle. The Kartids therefore survived. Following the return home, Mas'ud attempted to rule without the support of the dervishes, but his power was decreased. He attempted to end the threat of Togha Temur, who had in the meantime made his camp in the Amul region and was preventing the Sarbadars from staying in contact with the Chobanids. Mas'ud undertook a campaign against him in 1344 which got off to a good start, but ended in disaster. On the route from Sari to Amul, the Sarbadar army was trapped in a pincer movement, and Mas'ud was taken prisoner and executed. Most of the Sarbadar conquests were lost as a result of the two losses; only the region around Sabzavar, as well as maybe Juvain and Nishapur remained in their hands. Togha Temur returned to Gurgan and once again gained the allegiance of the Sarbadars.

Amb la derrota del Ja'un-i Qurban i Togha Temur, el Sarbadars encara tenia una força més per competir a Khurasan: el Kartids d'Herat. El seu Xivarri d'al Mu'izz de líder Husain també reconeixia l'overlordship de Togha Temur, i quan es desfeia el Sarbadars de la regla nominal del khan, convenien als enemics. El Sarbadars decidia destruir el Kartids amb una campanya ofensiva. Els exèrcits de les dues forces es trobaven a Zava el 18 de juliol, de 1342. La batalla començava bé per al Sarbadars, però llavors Hasan Juri es prenia i es matava. Els seus seguidors, assumint (potser correctament) que la seva mort havia estat el resultat d'un assassí de Mas'ud, immediatament retirat, girant la marea de la batalla. El Kartids per això sobrevivia. Seguint el retorn a casa, Mas'ud intentava governar sense el suport dels dervissos, però el seu poder es disminuïa. Intentava acabar l'amenaça de Togha Temur, que havia fet mentrestant el seu camp a la regió d'Amul i estava impedint al Sarbadars quedar-se en contacte amb el Chobanids. Mas'ud emprenia una campanya contra ell el 1344 que s'alliberava a un bon començament, però acabava en el desastre. En la ruta des de Sari a Amul, l'exèrcit Sarbadar s'atrapava en un moviment de pincer, i a Mas'ud se li portava pres i s'executava. La majoria de les conquestes Sarbadar estaven perdudes com a resultat de les dues pèrdues; només la regió al voltant de Sabzavar, així com potser Juvain i Nishapur romania a les seves mans. Togha Temur retornava a Gurgan i una vegada més guanyava la fidelitat del Sarbadars.

1344-1361

Mas'ud's first three successors ruled for a period totaling only three years. Both of the first two men had served as his military commanders; Mas'ud's brother Shams al-Din came next, only to fall as well. These internal conflicts were countered by good news on the external front; namely, the death of Arghun Shah in 1343, and the rise of his successor Muhammad Beg, who abandoned the alliance of the Ja'un-i Qurban with Togha Temur in favor of one with the Sarbadars. Shams al-Din was replaced in turn by the dervish Shams al-Din 'Ali in 1347, marking the loss of power by Mas'ud's adherents. Shams al-Din 'Ali was an effective administrator, reorganizing the state finances, carrying out tax reforms, and paying officials in cash. As a religious man, he attempted to stamp out prostitution, drugs and alcohol, and lived a simple life. His military was effective; although he failed to take Tus, he was able to destroy a rebellion in Damghan in the west. He was, however, prevented from turning the Sarbadar state to the Shi'i creed by Mas'ud's supporters, who kept the government Sunni. In the meantime, he gained enemies among the opponents of the dervishes, as well as the corrupt officials of the state that hated his reforms. One of these officials named Haidar Qassab, who was possibly a member of the artisan guild, murdered him around 1352.

Mas' els primers tres successors d'ud governats per un període que suma només tres anys. Els dos primers dos homes havien servit dels seus comandants militars; Mas' el germà d'ud Shams el Xivarri d'al venia pròxim, només caure també. Aquests conflictes interns eren contrarestats per les bones notícies al front extern; és a dir, la mort d'Arghun Shah el 1343, i la pujada del seu successor Muhammad Beg, que abandonava l'aliança del Ja'un-i Qurban amb Togha Temur a favor d'un amb el Sarbadars. Shams el Xivarri d'al era reemplaçat a canvi pel dervís Shams Xivarri d'al 'Ali el 1347, marcant la pèrdua de poder a prop Mas' els partidaris d'ud. Shams Xivarri d'al Que 'Ali era un administrador eficaç, reorganitzant les finances estatals, fent reformes fiscals, i pagant oficials al comptat. Com a home religiós, intentava acabar amb prostitució, drogues i alcohol, i vivia una vida simple. Els seus militars eren eficaços; encara que fracassava a portar dt., podia destruir una rebel·lió a Damghan a l'oest. Se li impedia, tanmateix, convertir l'estat Sarbadar en el credo Shi'i a prop Mas' els seguidors d'ud, que es quedaven el govern Sunni. Mentrestant, guanyava enemics entre els adversaris dels dervissos, així com els oficials corruptes de l'estat que odiaven les seves reformes. Un d'aquests oficials nomenats Haidar Qassab, que era possiblement un membre del gremi d'artesans, l'assassinava al voltant de 1352.

Shams al-Din 'Ali's successor was a member of the Sabzavari aristocracy named Yahya Karavi. Yahya was forced to deal with Togha Temur, who in spite of the loss of the allegiance of the Ja'un-i Qurban and, in 1349, the Kartids, still was a danger of the Sarbadars. His army of 50,000 dwarfed the Sarbadar army, which numbered only around 22,000. Yahya neutralized the khan by recognizing him as suzerain, striking coins in his name and paying taxes to him. He also promised to visit Togha Temur once a year. He was probably making one of these visits when he arrived in November or December of 1353 at the khan's camp of Sultan-Duvin near Astarabad. Yahya and a group of his followers entered the camp and were allowed into Togha Temur's tent. There, they murdered the khan and his courtiers, then put to death the Mongol troops and killed the nomads' herds. With the death of Togha Temur, the last serious contender for the Ilkhanid throne was gone. The Sarbadar lands then expanded to the borders reached by Mas'ud, and then gained even more: the area around Ray, the city of Tus, and Astarabad and Shasman. Yahya, however, was murdered around 1356, possibly at the hands of Mas'ud's adherents. Mas'ud's son Lutf Allah was possibly involved in the murder.

Shams Xivarri d'al Que 'el successor d'Ali era un membre de l'aristocràcia Sabzavari nomenada Yahya Karavi. Yahya es forçava a tractar amb Togha Temur, que malgrat la pèrdua de la fidelitat del Ja'un-i Qurban i, el 1349, el Kartids, encara era un perill del Sarbadars. El seu exèrcit de 50,000 empetitit l'exèrcit Sarbadar, quin,000 numerat de només al voltant de 22. Yahya neutralitzava el khan reconeixent-lo com suzerain, pegant monedes en el seu nom i pagant-li impostos. També prometia visitar Togha Temur una vegada a l'any. Estava fent probablement una d'aquestes visites quan arribava en novembre o desembre de 1353 en el camp del khan de Sultan-Duvin prop d'Astarabad. Yahya i un grup dels seus seguidors ingressaven al camp i s'admetien a la tenda de Togha Temur. Allà, assassinaven el khan i els seus cortesans, llavors posa a mort les tropes Mongoles i matava els ramats dels nòmades. Amb la mort de Togha Temur, l'últim adversari seriós pel tron Ilkhanid se n'havia anat. Les terres Sarbadar llavors s'expandien a les fronteres a què arribava Mas'ud, i llavors guanyades fins i tot més: l'àrea al voltant de Raig, la ciutat de dt., i Astarabad i Shasman. Yahya, tanmateix, s'assassinava al voltant de 1356, possiblement a les mans de Mas' els partidaris d'ud. Mas' el fill d'ud que Lutf Allah era possiblement implicat en l'assassinat.

Haidar Qassib, the murderer of Shams al-Din 'Ali, now took advantage of the situation. Arriving from Astarabad, ostensibly to hunt down Yahya's killers, he installed Yahya's nephew Zahir al-Din Karavi to rule. Soon afterwards, however, he removed him from power and ruled in his own name. Unfortunately for him, he was unpopular with nearly everyone even before he came to power. As a former member of Shams al-Din 'Ali's party, the supporters of Mas'ud disliked him, and his murder of Shams al-Din 'Ali alienated him from the dervishes. Nasr Allah, Lutf Allah's tutor, allied with Yahya's murderers and rose in revolt in Isfara'in, the second city of the Sarbadars. Haidar moved to put the rebellion down, but before he could he was stabbed to death by an assassin hired by a Hasan Damghani. Lutf Allah now gained control of the state, but he soon came into conflict with Hasan Damghani as well. He was defeated, and in the process Mas'ud's adherents were mostly eliminated.

Haidar Qassib, l'assassí de Shams Xivarri d'al 'Ali, ara aprofitava la situació. Arribant d'Astarabad, per aparentment atrapar els assassins de Yahya, instal·lava el Xivarri d'al Zahir de nebots de Yahya Karavi per governar. Aviat després, tanmateix, el treia de poder i governava en el seu propi nom. Desafortunadament per a ell, era impopular amb gairebé tothom fins i tot abans de venir a poder. Com a anterior membre de Shams 'el partit' de Xivarri d'al 'Ali, als seguidors de Mas'ud els desagradaven ell, i el seu assassinat de Shams Xivarri d'al 'Ali l'alienava dels dervissos. Nasr Allah, Lutf Allah ensenyar, aliat amb els assassins de Yahya i rosa en la rebel·lió a Isfara'in, la segona ciutat del Sarbadars. Haidar induïa a deixar la rebel·lió, però abans d'ell podia era apunyalat a mort per un assassí contractat per un Hasan Damghani. Lutf Allah ara guanyava control de l'estat, però aviat entrava en conflicte amb Hasan Damghani també. Se'l derrotava, i en el procés Mas' els partidaris d'ud eren principalment eliminats.

Hasan Damghani was now forced to deal with Amir Vali, who was a son of the former governor of Astarabad before its conquest by the Sarbadars. Amir Vali had taken advantage of Haidar Qassib's move out of Astarabad to return to the city. Amir Vali then claimed to be acting in the name of Luqman, the son of Togha Temur, although he never handed power over to him. Hasan sent two expeditions against him, both of which ended in failure; he himself led a third force, but met no more success, allowing Amir Vali to be in a position to gain more Sarbadar territory. Meanwhile, in the east a radical Shi'i named Darvish 'Aziz revolted and established a theocratic state in Mashhad in the name of the Twelfth Imam. Darvish 'Aziz gained more territory with his conquest of Tus. Hasan recognized that the entire Sarbadar state was in jeopardy: the Sabzavari dervishes might declare their support for the theocratic state at any time. He moved against Darvish 'Aziz, defeated him and destroyed the Mahdist state; Darvish 'Aziz went to Isfahan in exile. Soon afterward, however, an 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad rose in revolt in Damghan and gained the support of Hasan's enemies. He recalled Darvish 'Aziz from exile and joined his order. While Hasan was besieging the castle of Shaqqan, near Jajarm, 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad captured Sabzavar around 1361. In the process, he captured the possessions and families of many of Hasan's followers. When he demanded Hasan's head, they therefore complied.

Hasan Damghani es forçava ara a tractar amb Amir Vali, que era un fill de l'anterior governador d'Astarabad abans de la seva conquesta pel Sarbadars. Amir Vali havia aprofitat el moviment d'Haidar Qassib fora d'Astarabad per retornar a la ciutat. Amir Vali llavors afirmava estar actuant en nom de Luqman, el fill de Togha Temur, encara que mai no li lliurava poder. Hasan enviava dues expedicions contra ell, els dos acabava en el fracàs; ell mateix portava una tercera força, però no trobava cap èxit més, permetent a Amir Vali ser en situació de benefici més territori Sarbadar. Mentrestant, a l'est un Shi'i radical anomenava Darvish 'Aziz es revoltava i establia un estat teocràtic en Mashhad en nom del Twelfth Imam. Darvish 'Aziz guanyava més territori amb la seva conquesta de dt. Hasan reconeixia que l'estat Sarbadar sencer era en perill: els dervissos Sabzavari es podrien declarar el seu suport a favor de l'estat teocràtic a qualsevol moment. Es traslladava contra Darvish 'Aziz, el derrotat i destruït l'estat Mahdist; Darvish 'Aziz se n'anava a Isfahan en exili. Aviat després, tanmateix, un 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad s'aixecava en la rebel·lió a Damghan i guanyava el suport dels enemics d'Hasan. Recordava Darvish 'Aziz des d'exili i unia el seu ordre. Mentre Hasan estava assetjant el castell de Shaqqan, prop de Jajarm, 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad capturava Sabzavar al voltant de 1361. En el procés, capturava les possessions i famílies de molts dels seguidors d'Hasan. Quan demanava el cap d'Hasan, per això obeïen.

Decadència i Submissió a Timur

'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad enjoyed, by far, the longest reign out of all the Sarbadar rulers. The partnership with Darvish 'Aziz lasted for ten months; while 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad, who was Shi'i, helped raised Shi'ism to the state religion, he opposed several of Darvish 'Aziz's theocratic ideas. Tensions were high when a campaign was begun against the Kartids of Herat. Even before they had met any resistance, the Sarbadar army erupted in violence. While on the march, 'Ali's men picked a quarrel with the dervishes; Darvish 'Aziz and many of his followers were killed trying to escape. 'Ali returned and attempted to destroy the power of the dervishes completely. He moved against their organization and forced them out of Sabzavar, and even destroyed the graves of Shaikh Khalifa and Hasan Juri. The dervishes, however, fled, being granted refuge by the Kartids, the Ja'un-i Qurban, and the Muzaffarids of Shiraz. Meanwhile, the Ja'un-i Qurban regained Tus, though the two sides seemed to have no further conflict. Amir Vali gained control of Simnan and Bistam, though Astarabad was temporarily reconquered by the Sarbadars (1365/6-1368/9. Administratively, 'Ali increased the quality of the coinage, and instituted tax reforms.

'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad gaudia, de bon tros, del regnat més llarg fora de tots els governants Sarbadar. L'associació amb Darvish 'Aziz durava durant deu mesos; mentre que 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad, que era Shi'i, ajudava Shi'ism criat a la religió estatal, s'oposava a uns quants de Darvish 'Les idees teocràtiques d'Aziz. Les tensions eren altes quan es començava una campanya contra el Kartids d'Herat. Fins i tot abans que haguessin trobat qualsevol resistència, l'exèrcit Sarbadar feia erupció en la violència. Mentre en marxa, 'Els homes d'Ali triaven una baralla amb els dervissos; Darvish 'Aziz i molts dels seus seguidors es mataven intentant escapar-se. 'Ali retornava i intentava destruir el poder dels dervissos completament. Es traslladava en contra de la seva organització i Els forçava fora de Sabzavar, i Fins i tot destruïa les tombes de Shaikh Khalifa i Hasan Juri. Els dervissos, tanmateix, fugien, concedint-los el Kartids refugi, del Ja'un-i Qurban, i el Muzaffarids de Shiraz. Mentrestant, el Ja'un-i Qurban recobrava dt., encara que els dos costats semblaven que no tinguessin conflicte més llunyà. Amir Vali guanyava control de Simnan i Bistam, encara que Astarabad era temporalment reconquerit pel Sarbadars (1365/6-1368/9. Administrativament, 'Ali augmentava la qualitat de l'encunyació, i reformes fiscals instituïdes.

In 1370 Mu'izz al-Din Husain of the Kartids died, to be succeeded by his sons Ghiyas al-Din Pir 'Ali and Malik Muhammad. Pir 'Ali, a grandson of Togha Temur by his mother Sultan Khatun, considered the Sarbadars his enemy, and used the emigrant Sabzavaris in his realm to stir up discontent against Ali-yi Mu'ayyad. The latter responded by supporting Malik Muhammad, who ruled a small part of the Kartid lands from Sarakhs. Pir 'Ali then moved against his stepbrother, but Ali-yi Mu'ayyad stopped him by a flanking attack after overcoming one of Pir 'Ali's castles near the border, whose commanders were Sabzavaris. Pir 'Ali was forced to come to terms with his stepbrother. The fighting with the Sabadars, however, continued, and 'Ali was forced to throw his forces to defend Nishapur, leaving the western part of his lands exposed. At the same time, he made a hostile enemy out of Shah Shuja of the Muzaffarids. A revolt in 1373 in Kirman against Shah Shuja led by Pahlavan Asad received military support from 'Ali, but the rebellion was defeated in December 1374. The dervishes in Shiraz, meanwhile, found a leader in Rukn al-Din, a former member of Darvish 'Aziz's order. Shah Shuja gave them money and arms, and they conquered Sabzavar around 1376, forcing 'Ali to flee to Amir Vali. At about the same time, Nishapur was conquered by the Kartids of Pir 'Ali.

El 1370 el Xivarri d'al Mu'izz Husain del Kartids moria, ser succeït pel seu Xivarri d'al Ghiyas de fills Pir 'Ali i Malik Muhammad. Pir 'Ali, un nét de Togha Temur pel seu Soldà mare Khatun, considerava el Sarbadars el seu enemic, i utilitzava l'emigrant Sabzavaris al seu regne per provocar disgust contra Ali-yi Mu'ayyad. L'últim responia donant suport a Malik Muhammad, que determinava que una part petita del Kartid aterra de Sarakhs. Pir 'Ali llavors es movia contra el seu germanastre, però Ali-yi Mu'ayyad l'aturava per un atac que flanquejava després de vèncer-ne un de Pir 'Els castells d'Ali prop de la frontera, els comandants del qual eren Sabzavaris. Pir 'Ali era forçat venir a termes amb el seu germanastre. La baralla amb el Sabadars, tanmateix, continuava, i 'Ali es forçava a llançar les seves forces per defensar Nishapur, marxant de la part occidental de les seves terres exposada. Alhora, feia un enemic hostil fora Shah Shuja del Muzaffarids. Una rebel·lió el 1373 a Kirman contra Shah Shuja portada per Pahlavan Asad rebia suport militar dAli, però la rebel·lió era derrotat el desembre 1374. Els dervissos a Shiraz a qui, mentrestant, es troba un líder en el Xivarri d'al Rukn, un anterior membre de Darvish 'L'ordre d'Aziz. Shah Shuja els donava diners i armes, i conquerien Sabzavar al voltant de 1376, forçant 'Ali a fugir a Amir Vali. A al voltant del mateix temps, Nishapur era conquerit pel Kartids de Pir 'Ali.

The new government in Sabzavar established a Shi'i rule based on the teachings of Hasan Juri. Not long afterward, however, Amir Vali arrived before the city. His group included Ali-yi Mu'ayyad, as well as the Muzaffarid Shah Mansur. 'Ali was reinstated as Sarbadar ruler once the city was captured, but many of his reforms had been abandoned. The partnership with Amir Vali furthermore did not last, and in 1381 the latter was besieging Sabzavar again. 'Ali, believing he had little other choice, asked for the assistance of Timur the Lame. He submitted to the conqueror in Nishapur, and Timur responded by ravaging Amir Vali's lands in Gurgan and Mazandaran. In Radkan, as he was returning from the victorious campaign, he confirmed 'Ali as governor of Sabzavar.

El govern nou a Sabzavar establia una regla Shi'i basada en els ensenyaments d'Hasan Juri. No molt de temps després, tanmateix, Amir Vali arribava abans de la ciutat. El seu grup incloïa Ali-yi Mu'ayyad, així com el Muzaffarid Shah Mansur. 'Ali es restablia com governant Sarbadar una vegada que la ciutat es capturava, però moltes de les seves reformes s'havien abandonat. L'associació amb Amir Vali a més no durava, i el 1381 l'últim estava assetjant Sabzavar una altra vegada. 'Ali, que creia que tenia poca altra elecció, demanava l'ajuda de Timur el Coix. Se sotmetia al conqueror a Nishapur, i Timur responia destruint les terres d'Amir Vali a Gurgan i Mazandaran. A Radkan, mentre estava retornant de la campanya victoriosa, confirmava 'Ali com governador de Sabzavar.

'Ali remained loyal to Timur, dying in 1386 after being wounded during Timur's campaign in Lesser Luristan. As a reward for this loyalty, Timur never occupied Sabzavar with his own troops, and allowed 'Ali to retain his local administration. After 'Ali's death, the Sarbadar territories were split amongst his relatives, who mostly remained loyal to Timur as well and took part in his campaigns. Muluk Sabzavari did become involved with the revolt of Hajji Beg of the Ja'un-i Qurban (which had been forcibly submitted to Timur's rule around 1381) in Tus in 1389, and afterwards sought refuge with the Muzaffarid Shah Mansur in Isfahan, but was eventually pardoned by Timur and given the governorship of Basra near the end of 1393. That same year, following the conquest of Baghdad by Timur, the governorship of that city was given to 'Ali's nephew Khwaja Mas'ud Sabzavari, who had a force of 3,000 Sarbadars. Despite this, he was forced to retreat in 1394 when Sultan Ahmad of the Jalayirids marched to recapture the city, and he retreated to Shushtar. Following the death of Timur, the Sarbadars slowly fell out of prominence.

'Ali romania lleial a Timur, morint el 1386 després d'estar ferit durant la campanya de Timur a Lesser Luristan. Com a recompensa per aquesta lleialtat, Timur mai no ocupava Sabzavar amb les seves pròpies tropes, i 'Ali' permès 'per retenir la seva administració local. Després de 'La mort d'Ali, els territoris Sarbadar es partien entre els seus parents, que principalment romanien lleials a Timur també i participaven en les seves campanyes. Muluk Sabzavari es tornava implicat amb la rebel·lió d'Hajji Beg del Ja'un-i Qurban (que s'havia sotmès forcibly a la regla de Timur al voltant de 1381) en dt. el 1389, i després buscava refugi amb el Muzaffarid Shah Mansur a Isfahan, però era finalment perdonat per Timur i se li donava el governorship de Basra prop del final de 1393. Aquell mateix any, després de la conquesta de Bagdad per Timur, el governorship d'aquella ciutat es donava a 'El nebot d'Ali Khwaja Mas'ud Sabzavari, que tenia una força de 3,000 Sarbadars. Malgrat això, se'l forçava a retirar-se el 1394 quan Sultan Ahmad del Jalayirids marxava per recobrar la ciutat, i es retirava a Shushtar. Seguint la mort de Timur, el Sarbadars lentament queia fora de prominència.

Llegat

Historically, the Sarbadars have been considered a robber-state; they have been accused of being a group of religious fanatics who terrorized their neighbors, with little regard for legitimate rule. Considering the conduct of nearly all of the Persian states during this time period, this assessment seems needlessly harsh. Other historians have considered the Sarbadars to be an example of class struggle; the downtrodden rising up against oppressive taxation by their masters, and establishing a republic in the middle of several feudal states. This, however, is not entirely accurate either. 'Abd al-Razzaq was a member of the ruling class, which was taxed the heaviest at the time. It could however be said that it was definitely a struggle of a people with a certain belief system against an oppressive ruler desiring to establish what could be easily be labelled a republic. Religious orders were common in this period of Persian history, as the order of the Ilkhanate fell apart, to be replaced by a period of anarchy and incessant warfare. Aside from the Safavid dynasty of Persia in the 16th century, the Sarbadars were probably the most successful example of such orders, although they rarely managed to achieve the state that they so desired.

Històricament, els Sarbadars s'han considerat un estat de lladres; se'ls ha acusat de ser un grup de fanatics religiosos que espantaven els seus veïns, amb poca consideració per regla legítima. Considerant la conducta de gairebé tot el persa manifesta durant això hora període, aquesta avaluació sembla innecessàriament dura. Uns altres historiadors han considerat que el Sarbadars és un exemple de lluita de classes; l'oprimit aixecant-se enfront d'impostos opressius pels seus màsters, i establint una república al mig d'uns quants estats feudals. Això, tanmateix, no és totalment acurat tampoc. 'Abd al-Razzaq era un membre de la classe dirigent, que era gravat el més pesat a l'època. Es podria tanmateix dir que era definitivament una lluita d'un gent amb un cert sistema de valors contra un governant opressiu que desitja establir què podria ser fàcilment ser etiquetat una república. Les ordres religioses eren comunes en aquest període d'història persa, mentre l'ordre de l'Ilkhanate es desfeia, per ser canviat per un període d'anarquia i guerra incessant. De banda de la dinastia de Safavid de Pèrsia al 16è segle, els Sarbadars eren probablement l'exemple més reeixit de tals ordres, encara que rarament aconseguien aconseguir l'estat que així desitjaven.

Influència Sarbadar

The Sarbadars had an indirect on northern Iran, where several Shi'i attempts to gain power locally were launched:

El Sarbadars tenia un indirecte a Iran del nord, on es llançaven uns quants intents Shi'i de guanyar poder localment:

Mazandaran: During Shams al-Din 'Ali's reign, a supporter of Hasan Juri named 'Izz al-Din, with a group of fellow adherents, returned to his homeland in Mazandaran. They were apparently unable to accept the moderate tone taken by the Sabadars in Sabzavar. 'Izz al-Din died en route, leaving his son Sayyid Qivan al-Din (also known as Mir-I Buzurg) to lead the group. They arrived in Amul and set up a state together with Kiya Afrasiyab, a son of a Hasan Chulabi, who had destroyed the local Bavandid dynasty in 1349. Like the Sarbadars, conflict soon erupted in this state between the secular rulers and the dervishes; the latter eventually won. Destroyed in 1392 by Timur, it emerged once more after his death, but only for a brief time.

Mazandaran: Durant Shams Xivarri d'al 'El regnat d'Ali, un seguidor d'Hasan Juri anomenat Xivarri d'Izz al, amb un grup de partidaris amics, tornats a la seva pàtria a Mazandaran. Eren aparentment incapaç d'acceptar el to moderat pres pel Sabadars a Sabzavar. 'El Xivarri d'Izz al moria en ruta, deixant el seu Xivarri d'al Sayyid Qivan de fills (també conegut com Mir-I Buzurg) per dirigir el grup. Arribaven a Amul i estableixen un estat juntament amb Kiya Afrasiyab, un fill d'un Hasan Chulabi, que havia destruït la dinastia Bavandid local el 1349. Com el Sarbadars, el conflicte aviat feia erupció en aquest estat entre els governants seculars i els dervissos; l'últim finalment vencia. Destruït el 1392 per Timur, emergia una vegada més després de la seva mort, però només per un temps breu.

Gilan: In Gilan, in northwestern Persia, a group of Shi'i shaikhs received help from the Mazandarani dervishes, and gained control of the region under Shaikh Amir Kiya. Due to the region's relative obscurity, the state survived until 1592, when it was absorbed by the Safavid Persians.

Gilan: En Gilan, a Pèrsia nord-occidental, un grup de shaikhs Shi'i rebien ajuda dels dervissos Mazandarani, i guanyaven control de la regió sota Shaikh Amir Kiya. A causa de l'obscuritat relativa de la regió, l'estat sobrevivia fins a 1592, quan era absorbit pels perses Safavid.

un Altre Sarbadars

Samarkand: A group of "sarbadars" (it is not known whether they actually called themselves that) was instrumental of the defeat of the khan of Moghulistan (the Eastern Chagatai Khanate), Ilyas Khoja, during his invasion of the Western Chagatai Khanate in 1365. The sarbadars of Samarkand closed the gates of the city and refused to open them for the invader. They withstood the subsequent siege and organized ambushes on the enemy until an epidemic began striking down the Moghul horses, forcing them to retreat. Shortly afterwards, an early ally of Timur, Husayn, forced his way into Samarkand and put most of the sarbadar leaders to death. Despite being a nomad, Timur decided to court the assistance of the sedentary sarbadars following the breakdown of the alliance with Husayn, and they were an important factor in his rise to power in the Chagatai horde.

Samarkand: Un grup de "sarbadars" (no se sap si de fet s'anomenaven allò) era instrumental de la derrota del khan de Moghulistan (el Chagatai Khanate Oriental), Ilyas Khoja, durant la seva invasió del Chagatai Khanate Occidental el 1365. Els sarbadars de Samarkand tancaven les portes de la ciutat i es negaven a obrir-los per a l'invasor. Resistien el subsegüent setge i les emboscades organitzades en l'enemic fins a una epidèmia començaven a donar els cavalls Moghul avall, forçant-los a retirar-se. En breu després, un primer aliat de Timur, Husayn, forçat la seva manera a Samarkand i posat la majoria dels líders de sarbadar a mort. Malgrat ser un nòmada, Timur decidia fer la cort a l'ajuda dels sarbadars sedentaris després de l'avaria de l'aliança amb Husayn, i eren un factor important en la seva pujada a poder en la multitud Chagatai.

Rulers

• Abd al-Razzaq ibn Fazlullah (1332-1338)

• Abd al-Razzaq ibn Fazlullah (1332-1338)
• Wajih ad-Din Masud ibn Fazlullah (1338-1343)

• Xivarri d'anunci Wajih Masud ibn Fazlullah (1338-1343)
• Muhammad Ay Temur (1343-1346)

• Muhammad Ay Temur (1343-1346)
• Kaba Isfendiyar (1346-1347)

• Kaba Isfendiyar (1346-1347)
• Lutf Allah (1347-1348 d.1361)

• Lutf Allah (1347-1348 d.1361)
• Khwaja Tadj ad-Din Ali (1348-1353)

• Xivarri d'anunci Khwaja Tadj Ali (1348-1353)
• Yahya ibn Karawi (1353-1358)

• Yahya ibn Karawi (1353-1358)
• Zahir ad-Din (1358-1359)

• Xivarri d'anunci Zahir (1358-1359)
• Haidar al-Qassab (1359-1360)

• Haidar al-Qassab (1359-1360)
• Lutf Allah (restored) (1360-1361)

• Lutf Allah (restaurat) (1360-1361)
• Hasan al-Damghani (1361-1364)

• Hasan al-Damghani (1361-1364)
• Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad ibn Masud (1364-1376 d.1386)

• Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad ibn Masud (1364-1376 d.1386)
• Rukn ad-Din (1376-1379)

• Xivarri d'anunci Rukn (1376-1379)
• Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad ibn Masud (restored) (1379-1386)

• Khwaja 'Ali-yi Mu'ayyad ibn Masud (restaurat) (1379-1386)

Veure també

• List of Shi'a Muslims dynasties

• Llista De Dinasties De Musulmans DE SHI'A

Referències

• Peter Jackson (1986). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Six: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. ISBN 0-521-20094-6